Biblical references
Text: World English Bible (public domain). The ESV and NKJV are the preferred study translations and are referenced, not reproduced.
1 Belshazzar the king made a great feast to a thousand of his lords, and drank wine before the thousand. 2 Belshazzar, while he tasted the wine, commanded that the golden and silver vessels which Nebuchadnezzar his father had taken out of the temple which was in Jerusalem be brought to him, that the king and his lords, his wives and his concubines, might drink from them. 3 Then they brought the golden vessels that were taken out of the temple of God’s house which was at Jerusalem; and the king and his lords, his wives and his concubines, drank from them. 4 They drank wine, and praised the gods of gold, and of silver, of bronze, of iron, of wood, and of stone. 5 In the same hour, the fingers of a man’s hand came out and wrote near the lamp stand on the plaster of the wall of the king’s palace. The king saw the part of the hand that wrote. 6 Then the king’s face was changed in him, and his thoughts troubled him; and the joints of his thighs were loosened, and his knees struck one against another. 7 The king cried aloud to bring in the enchanters, the Chaldeans, and the soothsayers. The king spoke and said to the wise men of Babylon, “Whoever reads this writing and shows me its interpretation shall be clothed with purple, and have a chain of gold about his neck, and shall be the third ruler in the kingdom.” 8 Then all the king’s wise men came in; but they could not read the writing, and couldn’t make known to the king the interpretation. 9 Then King Belshazzar was greatly troubled, and his face was changed in him, and his lords were perplexed. 10 The queen by reason of the words of the king and his lords came into the banquet house. The queen spoke and said, “O king, live forever; don’t let your thoughts trouble you, nor let your face be changed. 11 There is a man in your kingdom in whom is the spirit of the holy gods; and in the days of your father, light and understanding and wisdom, like the wisdom of the gods, were found in him. The king, Nebuchadnezzar, your father—yes, the king, your father—made him master of the magicians, enchanters, Chaldeans, and soothsayers, 12 because an excellent spirit, knowledge, understanding, interpreting of dreams, showing of dark sentences, and dissolving of doubts were found in the same Daniel, whom the king named Belteshazzar. Now let Daniel be called, and he will show the interpretation.” 13 Then Daniel was brought in before the king. The king spoke and said to Daniel, “Are you that Daniel of the children of the captivity of Judah, whom the king my father brought out of Judah? 14 I have heard of you, that the spirit of the gods is in you and that light, understanding, and excellent wisdom are found in you. 15 Now the wise men, the enchanters, have been brought in before me, that they should read this writing, and make known to me its interpretation; but they could not show the interpretation of the thing. 16 But I have heard of you, that you can give interpretations and dissolve doubts. Now if you can read the writing and make known to me its interpretation, you shall be clothed with purple, and have a chain of gold around your neck, and shall be the third ruler in the kingdom.” 17 Then Daniel answered before the king, “Let your gifts be to yourself, and give your rewards to another. Nevertheless, I will read the writing to the king, and make known to him the interpretation. 18 “To you, king, the Most High God gave Nebuchadnezzar your father the kingdom, and greatness, and glory, and majesty. 19 Because of the greatness that he gave him, all the peoples, nations, and languages trembled and feared before him. He killed whom he wanted to, and he kept alive whom he wanted to. He raised up whom he wanted to, and he put down whom he wanted to. 20 But when his heart was lifted up, and his spirit was hardened so that he dealt proudly, he was deposed from his kingly throne, and they took his glory from him. 21 He was driven from the sons of men, and his heart was made like the animals’, and his dwelling was with the wild donkeys. He was fed with grass like oxen, and his body was wet with the dew of the sky, until he knew that the Most High God rules in the kingdom of men, and that he sets up over it whomever he will. 22 “You, his son, Belshazzar, have not humbled your heart, though you knew all this, 23 but have lifted up yourself against the Lord of heaven; and they have brought the vessels of his house before you, and you and your lords, your wives, and your concubines, have drunk wine from them. You have praised the gods of silver and gold, of bronze, iron, wood, and stone, which don’t see, or hear, or know; and you have not glorified the God in whose hand your breath is, and whose are all your ways. 24 Then the part of the hand was sent from before him, and this writing was inscribed. 25 “This is the writing that was inscribed: ‘MENE, MENE, TEKEL, UPHARSIN.’ 26 “This is the interpretation of the thing: MENE: God has counted your kingdom, and brought it to an end. 27 TEKEL: you are weighed in the balances, and are found wanting. 28 PERES: your kingdom is divided, and given to the Medes and Persians.” 29 Then Belshazzar commanded, and they clothed Daniel with purple, and put a chain of gold about his neck, and made proclamation concerning him, that he should be the third ruler in the kingdom.
Connection: The vessels Nebuchadnezzar took from the Jerusalem temple (5:2; cf. 1:2). (confidence: high)
Connection: Daniel recalls Nebuchadnezzar's humbling (5:18–21). (confidence: high)
Connection: The queen recalls Daniel's appointment as chief of the wise men (5:11; cf. 2:48). (confidence: high)
Biblical account
Layer: Biblical text
Belshazzar feasts with a thousand lords and drinks from the Jerusalem temple vessels while praising idols. A hand writes on the plaster wall by the lampstand. The king's experts fail; the queen points to Daniel. Daniel refuses the rewards, recalls Nebuchadnezzar's humbling, condemns Belshazzar's pride and sacrilege, and reads MENE, MENE, TEKEL, UPHARSIN as the end of his kingdom. Belshazzar makes him third ruler.
Historical overview
Layer: Historical reconstruction · Period: Final years of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (Nabonidus, 556–539 BC)
Nabonidus spent about ten years at Tayma, entrusting "the kingship" to his eldest son (Verse Account ii 5–6); the Chronicle records "the prince" in Akkad in those years. In Nabonidus's 12th year oaths were sworn by Nabonidus "and Belshazzar, the son of the king" (Dougherty pp. 96–97). Nabonidus was back in Babylon for the New Year of year 17, when Cyrus invaded.[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
- Belshazzar: Son of the king; acting ruler in Babylon ("king" in Daniel)[1, 3]
- Nabonidus: King of Babylon[5]
Kingdoms: Neo-Babylonian Empire, Achaemenid Persian Empire
Date and chronology derivation
Ranges are computed by the project's deterministic chronology engine from the biblical statements and each model's reign anchors. They are reconstructions, not independent dates.
539 BC
Model-independent (applies under every chronology model) · precision: reign
How this range was derived
Earliest bound
- Synchronism: Fall of Babylon: 16 Tašrītu, Nabonidus year 17 (ABC 7) — independently dated between 12 Oct 539 BC and 13 Oct 539 BC (Babylonian day date converted with Parker & Dubberstein (1942) tables) (Daniel 5:30–31)[4, 5, 6]Assumption: 16 Tašrītu year 17 = 13 Oct 539 (Parker & Dubberstein 1942, p. 11; month VII began 28 Sep). Many modern works give 12 Oct; the one-day spread reflects day-boundary and month-start conventions. Window 12–13 Oct. The chronicle year is lost on the tablet; the 17th year of Nabonidus is fixed by context and the Babylonian king-list chronology (Parker & Dubberstein).
- “your kingdom is divided, and given to the Medes and Persians … In that night Belshazzar … was slain. Darius the Mede received the kingdom” — Belshazzar slain; Darius the Mede receives the kingdom (Dan 5:30–31) days later Fall of Babylon to Cyrus (October 539 BC) (Daniel 5:28–31)[4]Assumption: Daniel does not date "that night" or name the capture; this constraint assumes it is the night Babylon was entered (16 Tašrītu). Babylonian sources do not record Belshazzar's death; if he died elsewhere or earlier, this constraint does not hold.
- “In that night Belshazzar the Chaldean King was slain” — Belshazzar slain; Darius the Mede receives the kingdom (Dan 5:30–31) days later Belshazzar's feast and the writing on the wall (Dan 5:1–29) (Daniel 5:30)
Latest bound
- reign of Nabonidus ended between 12 Oct 539 BC and 13 Oct 539 BC (model-independent)[4, 5]Assumption: Babylon fell on 16 Tašrītu of year 17 (ABC 7 iii 15) = 13 Oct 539 in Parker & Dubberstein (1942, p. 11); other modern conversions give 12 Oct. A Nabonidus-dated tablet from Uruk of the next day reflects delayed news. Babylonian accession-year dating; reign length 17 years (accession year 556/555).
- “Belshazzar the king made a great feast” — Belshazzar's feast and the writing on the wall (Dan 5:1–29) within reign reign of Nabonidus (Daniel 5:1)[1, 3]Assumption: Belshazzar ruled as Nabonidus's son and deputy; the feast falls within Nabonidus's reign.
What else was happening? (model-independent)
- Daniel's refusal of the king's food and the ten-day test (Dan 1:8–16): 606 BC – ?
- Nebuchadnezzar's golden image on the plain of Dura (Dan 3:1–7): 603 BC – ?
- Nebuchadnezzar's decree honouring the God of the three Judeans (Dan 3:28–30): 603 BC – ?
- The refusal of Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego and the fiery furnace (Dan 3:8–27): 603 BC – ?
- Belshazzar slain; Darius the Mede receives the kingdom (Dan 5:30–31): 539 BC
- Fall of Babylon to Cyrus (October 539 BC): 539 BC
- Cyrus II (the Great) (reign): 539 BC – 530 BC
- Nabonidus (reign): 556 BC – 539 BC
- The thirty-day decree and Daniel in the lions' den (Dan 6:4–23): 539 BC – ?
- Darius appoints 120 satraps and three chief officials (Dan 6:1–3, 28): 539 BC – ?
- The accusers punished; Darius's decree honouring the God of Daniel (Dan 6:24–27): 539 BC – ?
- Daniel's night vision of the four beasts and its interpretation (Dan 7): ? – 539 BC
- Daniel's vision of the ram and the goat at Susa (Dan 8): ? – 539 BC
- Gabriel comes at the evening offering with the word of the seventy weeks (Dan 9:20–27): 539 BC – 536 BC
- Daniel reads Jeremiah's seventy years and prays (Dan 9:1–19): 539 BC – 536 BC
- Gedaliah governs from Mizpah and is assassinated (2 Kgs 25:22–26): 589 BC – ?
Ancient and modern geography
Location confidence assumes the event as described. Whether it occurred is assessed in the claims below.
| Place | Connection to this event | Location identification |
|---|---|---|
| BabylonBabil (ruins near Hillah) | Royal palace (as narrated)Location confidence: probable | Babylon (Pleiades 893951): certain[7] |
| TaymaTayma | Nabonidus's residence in the regency yearsLocation confidence: probable | Tayma oasis (Pleiades 814739): certain[8] |
Claims, evidence and classifications
Each claim is classified on its own. A classification describes the evidence for that specific claim, not for the event as a whole.
Belshazzar was a real person, the eldest son of Nabonidus.
Nabonidus's own Ur cylinder names Bel-šar-uṣur as his eldest son, and contemporary oath formulas name "Belshazzar, the son of the king".
Supporting
- Nabonidus prays to Sin for Bel-šar-uṣur, "the eldest son — my offspring".[2]Strength: direct·Closing prayer·Claim checked
- Contract tablets of Nabonidus's 12th year record oaths by the decrees of Nabonidus, king of Babylon, "and Belshazzar, the son of the king" — the only known oaths naming a king's son.[3]Strength: direct·pp. 96–97·Claim checked
Research date 2026-10-13
Belshazzar exercised royal authority in Babylonia while Nabonidus was away at Tayma.
The Verse Account says Nabonidus "entrusted the kingship" to his eldest son; the Chronicle has "the prince" with the army in Akkad in the Tayma years; oaths in year 12 pair his name with the king's.
Supporting
- Nabonidus gave the army to his eldest son and "entrusted the kingship to him" before going to Tayma.[1]Strength: direct·col. ii 5–6·Claim checked
- Contract tablets of Nabonidus's 12th year record oaths by the decrees of Nabonidus, king of Babylon, "and Belshazzar, the son of the king" — the only known oaths naming a king's son.[3]Strength: direct·pp. 96–97·Claim checked
- The king was in Tayma while "the prince, his officers and army" were in Akkad.[4]Strength: indirect·ii 5 (year 7) and years 9–11·Claim checked
Limitations of this classification: The Verse Account is hostile Persian-period polemic; the Chronicle does not name the prince.
Research date 2026-10-13
Belshazzar was "king" of Babylon and the son of Nebuchadnezzar (Dan 5:1–2, 11, 18, 22).
Babylonian documents call him "son of the king", never king, and do not date by his years; he was Nabonidus's son. Conservative interpreters read "king" as functional co-regency (kingship entrusted to him) and "father" as ancestor or royal predecessor, possibly through a mother descended from Nebuchadnezzar (a proposal, e.g. Shea 1982, via Wikipedia). Critical scholars read both as historical errors of a later author.
Supporting
- Nabonidus gave the army to his eldest son and "entrusted the kingship to him" before going to Tayma.[1]Strength: direct·col. ii 5–6·Claim checked
Challenging
- A contract names "Bēl-rīṣūa, the servant of Belshazzar, the son of the king" — the title in Babylonian documents is "son of the king".[3]Strength: direct·p. 81 (contract)·Claim checked
Context
- Josephus equates Daniel's Baltasar with Naboandelus (Nabonidus), showing an ancient attempt to reconcile Daniel with Babylonian king-lists.[9]Strength: indirect·Ant. 10.11.2·Claim checked
- Contemporary texts call him mār šarri ("son of the king"); no document is dated by his regnal years and he never bore the title šarru.[10]Strength: indirect·Title and status·Claim checked
- Belshazzar was Nabonidus's son, not Nebuchadnezzar's, and never became king; Darius the Mede is unknown to history.[11]Strength: indirect·Historical problems (Seow 2003, pp. 4–6)·Claim checked
Limitations of this classification: Shea 1982 not read.
Research date 2026-10-13
The "third ruler" in the kingdom (5:7, 16, 29) reflects rule by Nabonidus and Belshazzar.
With Nabonidus as king and Belshazzar as his deputy, the third place was the highest available; first proposed by Grotius and argued by Dougherty. Torrey and others read the Aramaic as an official title ("triumvir"-type rank) rather than a numerical rank.
Supporting
- Nabonidus was first ruler and Belshazzar second, so the interpreter received third place; the view goes back to Grotius. Torrey read "third" differently.[3]Strength: indirect·pp. 196–197 and nn. 651–654·Claim checked
Context
- Contract tablets of Nabonidus's 12th year record oaths by the decrees of Nabonidus, king of Babylon, "and Belshazzar, the son of the king" — the only known oaths naming a king's son.[3]Strength: direct·pp. 96–97·Claim checked
Limitations of this classification: Torrey's and Montgomery's arguments known only through Dougherty's notes.
Research date 2026-10-13
A royal feast was being held in Babylon on the night of its capture.
Herodotus and Xenophon independently of Daniel place a festival in Babylon on the night of capture. Neither cuneiform account mentions a feast, and the Greek sources date from a century or more after the events.
Supporting
Limitations of this classification: Greek accounts conflict with the Chronicle on how the city was entered.
Research date 2026-10-13
Temple vessels from Jerusalem were kept in Babylon until the Persian period.
Known only from biblical texts (Dan 1:2; 2 Kgs 24:13; Ezra 1:7–11); no Babylonian inventory of them has been found.
Research date 2026-10-13
A hand miraculously wrote on the palace wall.
A claim of divine action that historical methods cannot assess. This is not a theological verdict.
Research date 2026-10-13
Evidence by type
The same evidence regrouped by kind of source. Each item names the claims it bears on.
Archaeological evidence
None recorded for this event.
Scientific findings
None recorded for this event.
Ancient documents
- Nabonidus prays to Sin for Bel-šar-uṣur, "the eldest son — my offspring".[2]Bears on: supporting — “Belshazzar was a real person, the eldest son of Nabonidus.”
- Nabonidus gave the army to his eldest son and "entrusted the kingship to him" before going to Tayma.[1]Bears on: supporting — “Belshazzar exercised royal authority in Babylonia while Nabonidus was …”; supporting — “Belshazzar was "king" of Babylon and the son of Nebuchadnezzar (Dan 5:…”
- The king was in Tayma while "the prince, his officers and army" were in Akkad.[4]Bears on: supporting — “Belshazzar exercised royal authority in Babylonia while Nabonidus was …”
- Josephus equates Daniel's Baltasar with Naboandelus (Nabonidus), showing an ancient attempt to reconcile Daniel with Babylonian king-lists.[9]Bears on: context — “Belshazzar was "king" of Babylon and the son of Nebuchadnezzar (Dan 5:…”
- Those in the middle of the city were "holding a festival" and did not know it had been taken.[12]Bears on: supporting — “A royal feast was being held in Babylon on the night of its capture.”
- Cyrus attacked on a night of "high festival" when the citizens drank all night.[13]Bears on: supporting — “A royal feast was being held in Babylon on the night of its capture.”
Modern news and announcements
None recorded for this event.
Reference works and summaries
- Contract tablets of Nabonidus's 12th year record oaths by the decrees of Nabonidus, king of Babylon, "and Belshazzar, the son of the king" — the only known oaths naming a king's son.[3]Bears on: supporting — “Belshazzar was a real person, the eldest son of Nabonidus.”; supporting — “Belshazzar exercised royal authority in Babylonia while Nabonidus was …”; context — “The "third ruler" in the kingdom (5:7, 16, 29) reflects rule by Naboni…”
- Contemporary texts call him mār šarri ("son of the king"); no document is dated by his regnal years and he never bore the title šarru.[10]Bears on: context — “Belshazzar was "king" of Babylon and the son of Nebuchadnezzar (Dan 5:…”
- Belshazzar was Nabonidus's son, not Nebuchadnezzar's, and never became king; Darius the Mede is unknown to history.[11]Bears on: context — “Belshazzar was "king" of Babylon and the son of Nebuchadnezzar (Dan 5:…”
- Nabonidus was first ruler and Belshazzar second, so the interpreter received third place; the view goes back to Grotius. Torrey read "third" differently.[3]Bears on: supporting — “The "third ruler" in the kingdom (5:7, 16, 29) reflects rule by Naboni…”
- A contract names "Bēl-rīṣūa, the servant of Belshazzar, the son of the king" — the title in Babylonian documents is "son of the king".[3]Bears on: challenging — “Belshazzar was "king" of Babylon and the son of Nebuchadnezzar (Dan 5:…”
Historical disputes and competing reconstructions
Disputed claims: Belshazzar was "king" of Babylon and the son of Nebuchadnezzar (Dan 5:1–2, 11, 18, 22).
Historical feast on the night of the fall
D. Guzik; R. P. Dougherty (1929)
The feast is the festival Herodotus and Xenophon place on the night Babylon was taken; the "third ruler" reflects Belshazzar's position as second to Nabonidus.[3, 12, 13, 14]
Court legend with historical memories
J. J. Collins (1984); C.-L. Seow (2003); via Wikipedia
A tale of court contest written long after the events: it correctly remembers Belshazzar but makes him king and son of Nebuchadnezzar, and introduces an unknown Darius the Mede.[10, 11]
Related passages and events
| From | Relationship | To | Basis |
|---|---|---|---|
| this event | Direct referencehigh · Biblical text | Nebuchadnezzar's campaign against Jerusalem in Jehoiakim's third year (Dan 1:1–2) | The vessels Nebuchadnezzar took from the Jerusalem temple (5:2; cf. 1:2). |
| this event | Direct referencehigh · Biblical text | Nebuchadnezzar's boast, madness and restoration (Dan 4:28–37) | Daniel recalls Nebuchadnezzar's humbling (5:18–21). |
| this event | Direct referencehigh · Biblical text | Daniel appointed over the province of Babylon (Dan 2:46–49) | The queen recalls Daniel's appointment as chief of the wise men (5:11; cf. 2:48). |
| this event | Followed byhigh · Biblical text | Belshazzar slain; Darius the Mede receives the kingdom (Dan 5:30–31) | "In that night" (5:30). |
| this event | Thematic parallelmedium · Biblical text | Ezra 1:7–11 | Cyrus returns the temple vessels Nebuchadnezzar had taken. |
Prophetic relationships
- this event → Prophecy reference → MENE, MENE, TEKEL, UPHARSIN (Dan 5:24–28)Preterist reading, proposed by The text itself (5:24–28) · high · Biblical textThe inscription and its interpretation within the narrative.
Vision content and interpretations
The symbolic content of a vision is not a historical occurrence. Identifications the text itself makes are marked as such. Every other reading is an interpretation, attributed to its proponents and labelled by approach. Proposed fulfillments await owner review and are never presented as established fact.
MENE, MENE, TEKEL, UPHARSIN (Dan 5:24–28) (Daniel 5:24–28)
Writing on the palace wall which Daniel reads as: God has numbered the kingdom and ended it; the king is weighed and found wanting; the kingdom is divided and given to the Medes and Persians.
In the text: Daniel's reading (5:26–28) and the narrated sequel that night (5:30–31).
Fulfilled that night in the fall of Babylon
PreteristTraditional Jewish and ChristianMachine-proposedIn owner review queueProponents: The narrative itself (5:30–31); D. Guzik
The kingdom of Belshazzar ended when Babylon passed to Cyrus in October 539 BC.[14]
PERES → Babylon given to the Medes and Persians
Weights and wordplay
PreteristPhilologicalProponents: C.-L. Seow (2003), via Wikipedia
As nouns the words name weights — a mina, a shekel and half-pieces — which Daniel reinterprets as verbs; parsîn also puns on "Persia". If the half-pieces are two half-shekels the total is 62 shekels, the age given for Darius the Mede. This is a reading of the words, not a fulfillment claim.[11]
Commentary references
Layer: Interpretation. This is commentary, not historical evidence.
Guzik reads Belshazzar as co-regent with Nabonidus (from 553 BC), explains "father" as grandfather or royal predecessor, and the "third ruler" as the highest rank Belshazzar could give. He interprets the words as verbs of judgement (after Adam Clarke) and sees the kingdom falling from within through pride and sacrilege.[14]
Unanswered questions and research gaps
- Old Greek Daniel 5 not read.
- Shea (1982) on Nitocris not read.
- Montgomery's and Torrey's "third ruler" arguments not read directly.
- Museum numbers for the Ur cylinders and the Verse Account not verified.
- Read the Old Greek version of Daniel 5, which differs from the Aramaic.
- Identity of "the queen" (5:10).
Research process
8 logged searches
| Date | Query | Where | Useful |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2026-10-13 | Enduring Word Daniel 5 | web fetch | 1 |
| 2026-10-13 | Livius: Nabonidus Cylinder from Ur; Verse Account; Cyrus Cylinder translation; ABC 7 year 17First Cyrus Cylinder URL returned 404; the translation page was found. | web fetch | 4 |
| 2026-10-13 | Wikipedia: Belshazzar; Darius the Mede; Fall of Babylon; Belshazzar's feast; Cyrus Cylinder; Nabonidus Cylinder | web fetch | 6 |
| 2026-10-13 | Nabonidus Chronicle 16 Tashritu October 12 539 Parker DubbersteinResults disagreed (11/12, 12, 13 Oct); resolved by reading Parker & Dubberstein directly. | web | 1 |
| 2026-10-13 | archive.org: Parker & Dubberstein, Babylonian Chronology (SAOC 24)OCR text of the 1942 edition read. | archive.org | 1 |
| 2026-10-13 | archive.org: Dougherty, Nabonidus and Belshazzar (1929)OCR text read. | archive.org | 1 |
| 2026-10-13 | Herodotus 1.188–191; Xenophon Cyropaedia 1.5, 7.5; Josephus Ant. 10.11 (Gutenberg)Perseus pages returned navigation only; gutenberg.org returned 503; pglaf mirror used. | gutenberg mirror | 3 |
| 2026-10-13 | Josephus Against Apion 1.20 (Berossus on Nabonnedus)Download failed; not cited. | gutenberg mirror | 0 |
Sources
- 1.Oppenheim, A. Leo (trans., ANET 1950), Lendering, Jona (ed.). Verse Account of Nabonidus — English translation on Livius.org. Livius.org. www.livius.orgClaim checkedAncient primary textPage gives no museum number. The text is hostile to Nabonidus and favourable to Cyrus.Verification log
- 2.Beaulieu, Paul-Alain (trans.), Lendering, Jona (ed.). Nabonidus Cylinder from Ur — English translation on Livius.org. Livius.org. www.livius.orgClaim checkedAncient primary textPage gives no museum number. Dated c. 540 BC, probably Nabonidus's last building inscription.Verification log
- 3.Dougherty, Raymond Philip. Nabonidus and Belshazzar: A Study of the Closing Events of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Yale University Press (Yale Oriental Series Researches 15). archive.orgClaim checkedAcademic monographRead through the Internet Archive OCR text.Verification log
- 4.Lendering, Jona (ed.). ABC 7 (Nabonidus Chronicle) — English translation on Livius.org. Livius.org. www.livius.orgClaim checkedAncient primary textFull translation page read. The page gives no museum number and no Julian dates.Verification log
- 5.Parker, Richard A., Dubberstein, Waldo H.. Babylonian Chronology 626 B.C.–A.D. 45 (SAOC 24). University of Chicago Press (Oriental Institute). archive.orgClaim checkedAcademic monographRead through the Internet Archive OCR text of the Oriental Institute PDF; OCR has digit errors (e.g. "589" for 539) checked against context. The 1956 revised edition was not consulted.Verification log
- 6.Cogan, Mordechai (trans., COS 2003), Schaudig, Hanspeter (edition), van der Spek, R. J.. Cyrus Cylinder — English translation on Livius.org. Livius.org. www.livius.orgClaim checkedAncient primary textPage states only that the cylinder is in the British Museum.Verification log
- 7.Pleiades contributors. Babylon — Pleiades place 893951. Pleiades (pleiades.stoa.org). pleiades.stoa.orgClaim checkedInstitutional databaseRepresentative point read from the Pleiades JSON record: lon 44.42497815, lat 32.53729695.Verification log
- 8.Pleiades contributors. Thaima (Tayma) — Pleiades place 814739. Pleiades (pleiades.stoa.org). pleiades.stoa.orgClaim checkedInstitutional databaseRepresentative point read from the Pleiades JSON record: lon 38.55, lat 27.6219.Verification log
- 9.Josephus, Whiston, William (trans.). Josephus, Antiquities 10.11.2–4 (trans. W. Whiston). Project Gutenberg #2848. www.gutenberg.orgClaim checkedAncient primary textVerification log
- 10.Wikipedia contributors. Belshazzar — Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation. en.wikipedia.orgClaim checkedPopular summaryVerification log
- 11.Wikipedia contributors. Belshazzar's feast — Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation. en.wikipedia.orgClaim checkedPopular summaryVerification log
- 12.Herodotus, Macaulay, G. C. (trans.). Herodotus, Histories 1.188–191 (trans. G. C. Macaulay). Project Gutenberg #2707. www.gutenberg.orgClaim checkedAncient primary textVerification log
- 13.Xenophon, Dakyns, Henry Graham (trans.). Xenophon, Cyropaedia 7.5 (trans. H. G. Dakyns). Project Gutenberg #2085. www.gutenberg.orgClaim checkedAncient primary textVerification log
- 14.Guzik, David. Daniel 5 — Enduring Word Bible Commentary. Enduring Word. enduringword.comClaim checkedTheological commentaryInterpretive resource — not historical corroboration.Verification log